Ampersand (&). Use the ampersand when it is part of a company's formal name: Stop & Shop, Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. In formal writing the ampersand should not otherwise be used in place of "and."
Apostrophe ('). Follow these guidelines:
To Make Possessives:
Plural nouns not ending in S, add 's: children's toys, men's shoes.
Plural nouns ending in S, add only an apostrophe: churches' bells, girls' dolls, students' books.
Nouns plural in form, singular in meaning, add only an apostrophe: physics' laws, trousers' legs, measles' effects (see inanimate objects below). Apply the same principle when a plural word occurs in the formal name of a singular entity: the United States' population, Fox News' journalists.
Nouns the same in singular and plural, treat them the same as plurals even if the meaning is singular: the deer's tracks, athletics' field-and-track events.
Singular nouns not ending in S, add ‘s: church’s bells, girl’s dolls.
Singular common nouns ending in S, add ‘s unless the next word begins with S: stewardess’s directions, stewardess’ seat, witness’s answer, witness’ story.
Singular proper names ending in S, add only an apostrophe: Chris' sister, Jesus’ life.
The following exceptions to the general rule for words not ending in S apply to words that end in an S sound (ce, x, and z) and are followed by a word that begins with S: conscience’ sake, ox’ semen, Mr. Benz’ strategy. But, use ‘s otherwise: conscience’s voice, ox’s horns, Mr. Benz’s car factory.
Personal interrogative and relative pronouns have separate forms for the possessive: whose. No personal pronoun involves an apostrophe: mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs. Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another’s idea, others’ plans, someone’s guess.
For compound words apply the rules above and add an apostrophe or ‘s to the word closest to the object possessed: lieutenant general’s decision, major generals’ decisions, attorney general’s accusation, attorneys general’s request. Also: anyone else’s house, Donald Trump Jr.’s father, Joe Biden of Delaware’s motion. Whenever practical, however, recast the phrase to avoid ambiguity: the motion by Joe Biden of Delaware.
For joint possession use a possessive form after only the last word if ownership is joint: John and Mary’s apartment, John and Mary’s business.
For individual possession use a possessive form after both words if the objects are individually owned: John’s and Mary’s cars, John’s and Mary’s school books.
For descriptive phrases do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in S when it is used in a descriptive sense: citizens band radio, writers guide, consumers demand. Generally, the apostrophe is not used if “for” or “by” rather than “of” would be appropriate in the longer form: a radio band for citizens, a college for teachers, a guide for writers, a demand by customers. An ‘s is required however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in S: a children’s hospital, the People’s Republic of China, the Young Men’s Christian Association.
For descriptive names: Diners Club, Ladies’ Home Journal. Note some governmental, corporate and institutional organizations with a descriptive word in their names use an apostrophe while others do not; follow the user’s practice.
For quasi possessives follow the rules above in composing the possessive form of words that occur in such phrases: a two hours’ journey, a three days’ job, ten euros’ worth, your money’s worth.
For double possessives: a friend of John’s, that stupid dog of Sue’s. Note that two conditions must apply for a double possessive to occur. First, the word after “of” must refer to an animate object, and second, the word before “of” must involve only a portion of the animate object’s possessions. Otherwise, don’t use the possessive form of the word after “of.” Friends of John came to the party. (Many friends showed up.) He is a friend of the university. (Not university’s because university is inanimate.) Remember that this construction occurs most often with the possessive form of personal pronouns: a friend of his, that stupid dog of hers.
For omitted letters: I’ve, it’s, don’t, can’t.
For omitted figures: The ‘60s, the class of ’77.
For plurals of a single letter: He learned the three R’s and got a report card with four A’s and two B’s.
Brackets ([ ]). Use brackets in pairs:
To set off a notation, explanation, or comment that is inserted in quoted material and is not part of the original text: “You’d better decide whether you’re hanging on the cross or banging in the nails. [Choose whether they kill you or you kill them first.]” Mel Gibson, Edge of Darkness.
To indicate that an error in fact, spelling, punctuation, or language usage is quoted deliberately in order to reproduce the original statement with complete accuracy. The questionable fact or expression is followed by the Latin word sic, meaning “thus,” which is enclosed in brackets: “The governor of Missisipi [sic] addressed his followers.”
To enclose comments, responses, observations, etc., regarding a verbatim transcription of a speech, debate, or testimony: Presidential candidate: "We will lower taxes for the middle class...." [Applause and loud cheers from the huge crowd.]
To substitute for parentheses within material already enclosed by parentheses: Read Hegel’s Absolute Idealism (S. E. Stumpf, Socrates to Sartre, A History of Philosophy [McGraw-Hill Books, 1966]).
Colon (:). The most frequent use of a colon is at the end of a sentence:
To introduce a series or list of items, examples, tabulations, or the like that follow but are not part of the sentence: She named her three favorite poets: Byron, Keats and Hardy. There were three considerations: expense, time and feasibility.
Do not use a colon after a main verb when the series completes or is the predicate of the sentence: My favorite basketball players are James, Porzingis and Curry.
(Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper name or the beginning of a complete sentence: He promised this: The company will make good all its debts.)
To introduce a long statement: This I believe: All men are created equal and must enjoy equally the rights that are inalienably theirs. Or, a question: This is the issue: Can an employer fire someone simply because he or she laughs loudly?
Use a comma (see below) to introduce a direct quotation of one sentence that remains within a paragraph. But use a colon for a longer quotation of more than one sentence within a paragraph (also, at the end of a paragraph that introduces a paragraph of quoted material): Richards replied: “You’re right. There can be no unilateral peace just as there can be no unilateral war. No one will contest that view.”
To indicate that an initial clause in a sentence will be further explained by what follows the colon. In effect, the colon is a substitute for such phrases (after a semi-colon or comma) as “e.g.,” “that is,” “for example” and “namely”: It was a city notorious for its inadequacies: its schools were antiquated, its administration was corrupt, and everyone felt the burden of its taxes.
To separate hours minutes and seconds in indicating time of the day or elapsed time: It’s 8:30 p.m. His marathon time was 2:18:33.
To separate parts of a citation (biblical, legal, literary), such as volume, chapter, page and verse: Genesis 3:2. City Code 3:245-260. Journal of Astronomy 15:26-29.
To follow a formal salutation, as in a business letter or speech: Dear Mr. Smith:; To Whom It May concern:; Ladies and Gentlemen:.
After the name of the speaker in a dialogue:
Clerk: "May I help you?"
Customer: "Yes, please. I’m looking for some boots."
Clerk: "What kind of boots would you like, ma’am?"
Customer: "Winter boots …"
And also in question-and-answer interviews:
Q: Did you strike him?
A: Of course, I did. He had it coming.
Note – Place colons outside quotation marks unless they are part of the quotation itself. Do not combine a dash (-) and a colon (:).
Comma (,). Use a comma or commas:
To separate items in a series of three or more: The chief agricultural products of Latvia are milk, eggs, potatoes, cucumbers, beets, barley, and rye. But don’t put a comma before the concluding conjunction in a simple series: I would hire Peter, Paul or Mary; any one of them could do the job. Note that it is permissible to omit the final comma before the concluding conjunction in a series of words as long as its absence doesn’t interfere with clarity of meaning. The final comma in the example above is not essential and could have been omitted: … beets, barley and rye. Never use a comma before a conjunction when two items are a single unit within a series, but one must be used before the concluding conjunction: I had orange juice, toast, bacon and eggs, and two cups of coffee for breakfast. A comma is also required before a concluding conjunction when its omission could materially change the meaning: At the supermarket I bought orange juice, coffee, bread, ham, and eggs.
Before a concluding conjunction in a complex series of phrases: He sold his business, rented out his house, gave up his car, paid his creditors, and set off for South America.
To separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. Memory aid: If the commas can be replaced by the word “and” without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: We walked down a dark, dangerous street. If “and” cannot replace the commas without creating a clumsy, almost meaningless sense, it is safe to conclude that the commas are also out of place: We drove through several old Western mining towns. And no comma is used either when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase, which is the equivalent of a single noun: She bought for herself a new, green spring hat.
Before coordinating conjunctions - “and,” “but,” “yet,” “for,” “or,” “nor” - to separate independent clauses (they could stand alone as separate sentences): Almost anyone knows how to earn money, but not one in a million knows how to spend it. She was glad she had looked before crossing the intersection, for a car was approaching at great speed. As a rule of thumb, when the subject of each independent clause is stated, separate clauses: We are visiting Riga, and we also plan a side trip to Tallinn; but, no comma when the subject of the two clauses is the same and is not repeated in the second: We are visiting Riga and also plan a side trip to Tallinn. The comma may be also omitted in sentences consisting of two short independent clauses with expressly stated subjects: We missed the bus but we caught the plane anyway.
To separate an introductory phrase or subordinate clause from the main clause: Having rid themselves of their former ruler, the people now disagreed on the new leadership. When he had tired of the hot summers of Spain, he moved to Lithuania. The comma may be omitted after a short introductory phrase unless ambiguity results: During the night we heard many noises. But don’t leave the comma out if its omission slows comprehension: On the street below, the curious neighbors gathered.
To set off an introductory modifier (adverb, participial phrase, etc.) even if it consists of only one word or a short phrase: Politically, our prime minister has proved to be inept. Looking up, I saw a rainbow in the sky.
To set off words of direct address, interjections, or transitional words used to introduce a sentence, such as “oh,” “yes,” “no,” “however,” “fine,” “well,” “frankly,” “still,” etc.: Yes, I will be there. No, sir, I did not take it. Oh, here you are! Fine, we’ll go together. Well, what have we here? Mother, I’ll be home late, so don’t wait up.
To set off parenthetical words and phrases, and transitional words and words of direct address that do not introduce a sentence: The use of pesticides, however, has its disadvantages. You may, if you insist, demand a refund. You realize, folks, that we may never again have such a fabulous opportunity. He knew, nevertheless, that all was lost.
To set off a nonrestrictive or nonessential clause from the rest of the sentence (use a comma before the clause; also after, if needed): Pink eye, which is an eye inflammation, is contagious. My cousin will pick me up at JFK airport, which is New York’s international airport. (An essential clause must not be set off by commas from the rest of the sentence: I prefer professors who lecture with verve.)
To set off a nonessential word or group of words, as well as appositives and appositive phrases, from the rest of the sentence: Indian corn, or maize, has been grown since the days of the early settlers. They ate dinner with their daughter Julie and her husband, David. Mrs. Smith, a member of the committee, refused to comment after the meeting. One of the nation’s major problems, the drug epidemic, remains unsolved. March, the month of crocuses, can still bring snow and ice to Latvia. (An essential word or phrase must not be set off by commas: We saw the award-winning movie “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest.”)
To introduce a complete one-sentence quotation within a paragraph: Robert said, “She spent six years in the U.S.A. and came back speaking Latvian with an American accent.” John asked, “Why not this week?” (Use a colon [see above] to introduce quotations of more than one sentence.) Do not use a comma at the start of an indirect or partial quotation: He said the victory had put the team “firmly on the road to their first title.”
Instead of a period, at the end of a quote that is followed by attribution: “The merger of the two companies is imminent,” said the chairman. “Rub my shoulders,” she suggested. (No comma if the quoted statement ends with an exclamation point or question mark; use the corresponding punctuation before the closing quotation mark: “Why should I?” he asked. “We simply can’t buy you a car. And that’s final!” replied the boy’s mother.)
To set off an individual’s age and hometown when used in apposition to the individual’s name: John Smith, 59, New York, N.Y., was one of the deceased.
To set off items in dates. When a date is given in the order of month and day, and year, set off the year with commas: Both of them died on July 4, 1826, just fifty years after the signing of the document. When only two items are given in a date, an intermediary comma is not needed; only the year is followed by a comma: January 1987, was the coldest month of that year. John’s birthday is November 18.
To set off elements in addresses and geographical locations: He lives at 1035 Bullfrog Road, Ogre, Latvia. His journey will take him from Dublin, Ireland, to Fargo, North Dakota, and back.
To set off an individual’s academic degree, title, etc.: Daniel Jones, Ph.D., spoke at the conference. Charles I, Duke of Albany, Duke of York, Prince of Wales, is next in line to become king of England.
To set off the salutation in a personal letter (see colon usage above): Dear John,
To set off the closing in a letter: Sincerely,; Sincerely yours,; Very truly yours,; Yours,.
For most figures higher than 999 (except street addresses, room numbers, telephone numbers and years, all of which are written without a comma): 1,001; 10,001; 100,001; 1,000,001; etc.
To separate duplicated words that otherwise would be confusing: What the trouble is, is not clear.
To denote an omitted, understood word or words in one or more parallel constructions within a sentence, usually a sentence containing a semicolon: John is studying French; Mary, Spanish.
Note – Commas always go inside quotation marks.
Dash (-). Use a dash:
To denote an abrupt change in thought, a grammatical construction or an emphatic pause in a sentence: We will fly to New York in June – if I get a raise. He offered a plan – it was unprecedented – to raise new revenues.
To suggest halting or hesitant speech: “Well – er – ah - it’s very hard to explain,” he faltered.
To indicate a sudden break or interruption before a sentence is completed: “Hey, don’t climb up that -.” It was too late.
To set off a phrase that contains a series of words that must be separated by commas: The prime minister’s promise of changes – land reform, higher wages, reorganization of industry – was not easily fulfilled.
Before an author’s o composer’s name at the end of a quotation to indicate attribution: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” - Aristotle.
To replace an offensive word or part of one: Where’s that son of a -? What the f -!
To signal informally the end or breaking off of a brief introductory phrase, salutation, dateline, etc.: Jack – Be back at 2:30. Jane. New York, May 2 – The city is broke.
Note – Put a space on both sides of a dash in all uses except at the start or end of a paragraph.
Ellipsis (… or ….). Use ellipsis points (three or four consecutive periods):
To indicate the deletion of one or more words in condensing quotes, texts and documents. If the deletion occurs at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence, use three periods in the ellipsis: “… the book is lively … and well written.” If the last part of the sentence is deleted or if entire sentences are deleted at the end of one paragraph, add a fourth period to the ellipsis to mark the end of the sentence or paragraph: He left his home …. Years later he returned …. When the grammatical sense calls for other punctuation marks, these may precede or follow the ellipsis: He named three factors: … and (c) unemployment. “Will you come?” ….
To indicate a pause or hesitation in speech, or a thought that the speaker or writer does not complete (see dash entry above): “Well … er … ah … it’s very hard to explain,” he faltered. “Hey, don’t climb up that ….” It was too late. However, a dash must be used for this purpose if the context uses ellipses to indicate that words actually spoken or written have been deleted.
Note – One regular space must be left on both sides of a three-period ellipsis when it occurs in the middle of a sentence: I … tried to do what was best.
Exclamation point (!). Use an exclamation point:
To end a sentence, clause, or phrase, or even after a single word that expresses strong emotion, such as a high degree of surprise, incredulity, joy, or anger, or that indicates a cry of distress, a forceful command, etc.: Go away! What a day this has been! “Wow!” “Never!” she shouted. “Hey, there!” he called out.
In parentheses, to indicate the writer’s amazement, outrage, or amusement at what precedes (this is not recommended in formal writing): The room was 6.4m wide, 26.8m long (!) and 5.5m high.
Note – Place the exclamation point inside quotation marks when it is part of the quoted material: “How wonderful!” he exclaimed. But place it outside quotation marks when it is not part of the quoted material: In high school I hated reading Chaucer’s “Tales of Canterbury”!
Don’t use a comma or a period after the exclamation point. Wrong punctuation: “Stop!”, she cried. Right punctuation: “Stop!” she cried.
Hyphen (-). It is a joiner used to avoid ambiguity or to form a single idea from two or more words. Use a hyphen:
To connect the elements of a compound modifier when it is used before the noun it modifies or after a form of the verb “be”: She bought a bluish-green dress. The dress is bluish-green. In most cases, the same modifier is not hyphenated if it follows the noun it modifies: The dress, a bluish green, was attractive on her. No hyphenation is required either with a compound modifier that includes an adverb ending in “-ly” even when it is used before the noun: She was wearing a loosely fitting jacket.
To avoid ambiguity and distinguish a near homonym from a more commonly used word: He recovered from his illness quickly. He re-covered the old couch by himself.
To form certain compound nouns denoting the combination of two or more constituents, qualities, or functions in one person: I had assistance from my teacher-counselor.
To form certain nouns made up of two or more words, including other parts of speech: Even a fourth-grader would know the answer to that question. She is a has-been now. My mother-in-law smokes marihuana.
To avoid duplicated vowels when a prefix results in the doubling of a letter, and tripled consonants when a suffix results in the tripling of a letter: The anti-intellectual movement is on the upsurge. Her hair was arranged in a shell-like shape.
To join certain prefixes with proper nouns or adjectives: anti-European, mid-July, neo-Nazi, non-Christian, Pan-African, pro-Latvian, un-American. With few exceptions (mid-level, neo-gothic) no hyphenation is required when these prefixes are joined to common nouns or adjectives: antibiotic, midsummer, neoclassic, nonintervention, pantheism, proabortion, unarmed. Words beginning with the prefix co- usually take no hyphen: cooperation, coordination, coexistence, coexist, coed, coeducation. The exception, however, is when the noun, adjective or verb indicates status or occupation: co-host, co-manager, co-worker, co-star, co-owner, co-pilot, etc.
To join the following prefixes and suffixes with the main word of a compound: ex-wife, ex-president, self-explanatory, self-service, president-elect, governor-elect.
To form most compound words that begin with the following word elements: all-day, all-around, cross-examine, cross-check, double-park, double-edged, great-grandfather, great-grandchildren (only in family relationships), heavy-duty, heavy-handed (except, heavyweight), ill-timed, ill-disposed, light-fingered, light-years, single-handed, single-minded, well-behaved, well-wishers.
To mark the division of a word of more than one syllable at the end of a line, indicating that the word is completed on the following line. If it is necessary to divide a word at the end of a line, don’t divide it so that only one letter stands alone at the end or beginning of a line. Never divide a one-syllable word, including words ending in -ed, such as walked, saved, etc. Avoid the division of a word that carries only two letters over to the next line. The following suffixes should never be divided: -able, -ible, -cial, -sial, -tial, -cion, -sion, -tion, -ceous, -cious, -tious. If a word that already has a hyphen must be divided, do so only at the hyphen.
To separate the parts of compound numbers from 21 to 99 when they are spelled out: He lives on West Fifty-second Street. She was born in nineteen hundred ninety-nine.
To separate the numerator from the denominator of a fraction that is used adjectivally: You’ll need one-half cup of milk. They have a two-thirds majority.
Note – The hyphenation of compound nouns and modifiers is often arbitrary, inconsistent and subject to change. Practices vary, often changing as a term becomes more widely used. To determine current usage as well as traditional forms, it is best to consult a good dictionary.
Parentheses ( ). Use parentheses in pairs:
To enclose material that isn’t part of the main sentence but is too relevant to leave out: The data (see Table below) show that a 52% majority is in favor of the proposal.
To enclose part of a sentence that, if enclosed by commas, would be confusing: The authors he advised (none other than Hemingway, Lewis, and Capote) would have been delighted to honor him today.
To enclose an item of clarifying or explanatory information: The three-day non-stop concert in the farm fields of Woodstock (New York) was a real madhouse.
To set off a nickname within a proper name: Stan (Turbo) Kowalsic is a truck diver in Down Under.
To enclose numbers or letters that designate each item in a series: The project is (1) too expensive, (2) too time-consuming, and (3) poorly staffed. We were required to take courses in (a) math, (b) English, (c) history, and (d) chemistry.
To enclose a numerical figure used to confirm a spelled-out number that precedes it: I have transferred to your bank account the amount of fifty euros (€ 50.00) to cover the cost of the order.
Note – If a sentence must contain parenthetical material, whenever possible use commas or two dashes, which are frequently more effective.
Place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment). (An independent parenthetical sentence such as this one takes a period before the closing parenthesis.) When a phrase placed in parentheses (this one is an example) might normally qualify as a complete sentence but is dependent on the surrounding material, don’t capitalize the first word or end with a period.
Period (.). Use a period:
To end a statement or a mildly imperative sentence (use an exclamation point for a forceful command): The meeting was constructive. Riga is the capital of Latvia. Read the next chapter by Monday. Shut the door.
To end an indirect question: We should find out whether the plane is leaving on time. He asked me what time the plane was leaving.
To end a polite request or suggestion phrased as a question: Will you please tell me the time. Why don’t we have some pizza.
To end a response: Yes, of course. Don’t mention it.
To follow many abbreviations, but there are also many that omit periods: A.D. 2000, 2000 B.C., 9:30 a.m., 9:30 p.m., No. 9, U.S.A.; EU, UNESCO, UNICEF, AIDS, AP, CNN. (To determine current usage, it is best to check a good dictionary.)
To abbreviate people’s first and middle names: John F. Kennedy, H. R. McMaster.
After numbers or letters to enumerate elements of a summary: 1. Mow the lawn. 2. Wash the car. 3. Clean out the garage. A. Write simply. B. Check the spelling. C. Punctuate properly.
Question mark (?). Use a single question mark:
To end a sentence, clause, phrase, or a single word that asks a direct question:
Who invited them to the party?
Did he ask who invited them to the party? (This sentence as a whole is a direct question despite the indirect question at the end.)
You told me – Did I hear you correctly? – that you invited them. (Direct question interpolated within a statement.)
“Is something wrong?” she asked.
In ten minutes? – I don’t believe it!
Who will the people elect? Clinton? Trump?
To end a declarative statement that’s meant to be a question: You started the fire?
To end a sentence with multiple questions: Did he plan the fire, have help, and give the signal to begin? (For emphasis, this could be broken into separate elements, each with its own question mark: Did he plan the fire? Have help? Give the signal to begin?)
To indicate doubt or uncertainty: The manuscript dates back to 560 (?) B.C.
Note – Never use a question mark to end a declarative sentence that ends in an indirect question: I’d like to know what the cause of the fire was.
Quotation marks (“ ”). These are two, the open-quote (“) and the close-quote (”) marks. Use quotation marks:
To distinguish the exact words (either single words, full sentences, whole paragraphs, or even poetic stanzas) of a speaker or writer when they are quoted from the original matter; e.g. as in reporting dialogues or stories: One of the economists present at the forum said the policy was “far too conservative” for times of hyperinflation. It was B. Franklin who said, “A penny saved is a penny earned.” “All great truths begin as blasphemies.” – George B. Shaw. “I don’t object,” he said, “to the content of the report.”
To enclose a quotation within a quotation; alternate between double quotation marks and single (‘ ’) marks: She said, “I quote from his letter, ‛I’ve just done hit the lottery and I’m flying over to see you asap.’ Isn’t that great?” If two quoted elements end at the same time, close with three marks (’”) together: She said, “He told me, ‘I love you.’”
To enclose titles of newspaper and magazine articles, essays, stories, poems, and chapters of books. The quotation marks distinguish such literary pieces from the books or periodicals (these are usually italicized in printed matter) in which they appear: The anthology contains such widely assorted pieces as Bacon’s essay “Of Studies,” Poe’s “The Bug,” Keats’s “Ode to a Nightingale,” and an article on literary criticism from The American Scholar.
To enclose titles of musical compositions and songs, except symphonies and operas, which are usually italicized in printed matter: Our national anthem is “God Bless Latvia.” The audience laughed at the “Figaro” aria from The Barber of Seville.
To enclose titles of works of art, such as paintings, drawings, photographs, and sculptures: Da Vinci’s most famous painting is “La Gioconda,” a.k.a. “Mona Lisa.” “The Thinker” is a sculpture by Rodin.
To enclose titles of radio and TV programs or series: “Panorama” is the oldest-running news program on Latvian television. “The Beverly Hillbillies” was an American sitcom series that’s become a classic.
To enclose names of ships and airplanes: There were plenty of well-to-do passengers on the “Titanic” when it sank. “Air Force One” is the U.S. president’s official airplane.
To enclose a word used as a word or the subject of discussion. (In printed matter, italics may also be used instead of quotation marks.): In this sentence, “woman” appears as a word rather than as the means of representing the concept associated with the word. The words “imply” and “infer” are not synonymous.
To draw attention to an unfamiliar word or words, a technical term, or a usage very different in style (e.g. slang) from the context: I’ll have a slice of apple pie “a la mode.” Broadcast frequencies are measured in “kilohertz.” Teenagers tend to smirk at “uncool” traditions.
To suggest ironic use of a word or phrase: The “debate” turned into a free-for-all. Her “skiing vacation” consisted of four weeks with her leg in a cast.
To set off a nickname within a proper name (see parenthesis usage above): Stan “Turbo” Kowalsic is a truck driver in Down Under.
To enclose each person’s words, no matter how brief, line by line of a dialogue or conversation (see colon usage above):
Clerk: “May I help you?”
Customer: “Yes, please. I’m looking for some boots.”
Clerk: “What kind of boots would you like, ma’am?”
Customer: “Winter boots, size seven, please.”
Clerk: “Certainly.”
Note – If a quotation consists of two or more consecutive paragraphs, use open-quote marks at the beginning of each and every succeeding paragraph without using close-quote marks. Place the close-quote mark at the end of the last paragraph only:
“… paragraph ….
“… paragraph ….
“… paragraph ….”
Don’t use quotation marks in question-and-answer interviews (see colon usage above):
Q.: Did you strike him?
A.: Of course, I did. He had it coming.
Use a comma between the quoted matter and such phrases as according to the speaker, he/she said, he/she replied, and they asked whenever these phrases introduce a quotation, are used parenthetically, or follow a quotation that, in its original form, would end with a period: John asked, “Why not this week?” According to the politically correct crowd, “all men and women are created equal and have the same rights.” “Well,” announced her father, “we are all going on vacation to Hawaii.” “The merger is imminent,” replied the new chairman of the board.
Whenever a phrase such as he/she said, he/she replied, or he/she asked follows a question or an exclamation, use the corresponding punctuation before the close-quote mark: “Why can’t we go out for pizza tonight?” asked the boy.
“Because we had pizza last night, it’s too expensive to eat out all the time, and that’s final!” replied the boy’s mother.
Place the close-quote mark after a question mark or exclamation point only when the latter is part of the quoted passage; in all other cases, place the close-quote mark before the exclamation point or question mark: “Is there any hope of recovering the property?” How absurd of him to say “This is the best of all possible worlds”! (The same goes for the dash and the semicolon, but the comma and period always go within the quotation marks.)
When a partial quote is used, don’t put quotation marks around words that the speaker couldn’t have used: Individual’s direct speech: “I am horrified at your slovenly manners.” Quoted incorrectly: She said she “was horrified at their slovenly manners.” Quoted correctly: She said she was horrified at their “slovenly manners.”
Semicolon (;). In general, the semicolon indicates a greater separation of thought and information than a comma can convey but less than the separation that a period implies. Use a semicolon:
To separate independent clauses that are joined by such conjunctive adverbs as “hence,” “however,” “therefore,” “thus,” and other adverbial conjunctions (a period may be used instead of a semicolon): He knew he couldn’t win the nomination; hence, he withdrew his candidacy. The plot of the novel is not very original; therefore, the ending is easy to predict. Every year fewer students attend school; thus, the Ministry of Education is able to employ fewer teachers and raise their salaries. Most of my meal was excellent; the vegetables, however, were somewhat overcooked.
To separate closely related independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction such as “and,” “but” or “for”: The package was due last week; it arrived today.
Before a coordinating conjunction only if extensive punctuation also is required in one or more of the independent clauses: They pulled their boats from the water, sandbagged the retaining walls, and boarded up all the windows; but even with these precautions, the island was hard-hit by the hurricane.
To separate and/or clarify long or possibly ambiguous items in a series, especially when individual items already include commas: The elected officers are John Smith, president; Michael Glenn, vice president; Edward Alder, treasurer; and Alice Stone, secretary.
To separate items that are closely related but can’t be joined unambiguously with a comma: Poverty is unbearable; luxury, insufferable.
To precede a word, phrase, or abbreviation that introduces explanatory information or an offered example, as before “i.e.,” “e.g.,” “that is,” or “for example” (a comma may sometimes be used instead of a semicolon): On the advice of my broker, I chose to buy shares in major manufacturers; i.e., steel, automobiles, and oil. He organized his work well; for example, he’d put correspondence in folders of different colors, which indicated degrees of urgency.
Virgule (/). A.k.a. diagonal, slant or slash. Use a virgule:
Between two words to indicate that whichever is appropriate may be chosen to complete the sense of the text in which it occurs: The defendant and/or his/her attorney must appear in court.
To show verse division in poetry: Sweetest love I do not go / For weariness of thee.
To separate the numerator from the denominator of a fraction: ¼; ½; ¾; etc.
To separate the month from the day from the year in dates: It was completed on 1/31/18.
